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Ethnography

Ethnography is a qualitative research method in which a researcher—an ethnographer—studies a particular social/cultural group with the aim to better understand it. Ethnography is both a process (e.g., one does ethnography) and a product (e.g., one writes an ethnography). In doing ethnography, an ethnographer actively participates in the group in order to gain an insider’s perspective of the group and to have experiences similar to the group members. In writing ethnography, an ethnographer creates an account of the group based on this participation, interviews with group members, and an analysis of group documents and artifacts. This entry offers an overview of ethnography and the ethnographic research process, including negotiating access, data collection, analysis, and writing.

Overview

Ethnography first became a popular research method in the fields of cultural anthropology and sociology. Anthropologists primarily used ethnography to study social or cultural groups away from home—“exotic” groups that were often outside of the researcher’s home country. Sociologists primarily used ethnography to study social/cultural groups close to home, groups within local, regional, and national borders. Anthropologists and sociologists used ethnography to make the unfamiliar aspects of their respective groups familiar for others. Some researchers also used ethnography to record the values, practices, and artifacts of groups threatened by assimilation and annihilation; the ethnographic products record ways of life that might soon disappear.

Ethnographers of or in communication primarily use ethnography to document, interpret, understand, and possibly even critique a group’s speaking patterns and practices, nonverbal behaviors, and messages about relationships within and outside of the group, as well as how these patterns, practices, behaviors, and messages are created and reinforced through social interaction. The ethnographic study of these communicative phenomena often includes examining the implicit and explicit assumptions present in group members’ talk, group rituals and ceremonies, and symbols and artifacts affiliated with the group.

For example, during a retirement ceremony, a speaker may explicitly state that an organization values the importance of personal relationships. The number of people who attend the ceremony or the gift to the retiree of a lifetime membership to the company gym may also implicitly communicate the organization’s value of relationships. The ethnographer is able to make these observations by participating in the organization, talking with organizational members, and attending events such as the retirement ceremony.

Research Decisions

The primary purpose of ethnography is to gain a holistic understanding of a social or cultural group. This is accomplished by engaging in participant observation, a practice in which the ethnographer aims to become an active and attentive member of the group and a practice often referred to as “going into the [research] field.” The ethnographer should also aim to participate in and observe natural settings—contexts in which group life would happen regardless of the ethnographer’s presence.

Before going into the field, the ethnographer must make a number of important preliminary decisions. The most important decision is deciding on the social or cultural group to study. Although a seemingly easy decision, two factors should be considered. Because most groups consist of smaller subgroups and are part of larger groups or organizations, determining the boundaries of the ethnographic field can be challenging. For example, if an ethnographer was interested in studying volunteers at a local hospital, the ethnographer may come to realize that volunteers are divided into subgroups (e.g., gift shop volunteers, patient service volunteers, volunteers at the auxiliary thrift store). The ethnographer may choose to focus on one set of volunteers, or all the volunteers within the hospital setting. Although the ethnographer may determine this focus at the start, the ethnographer may choose to change the boundaries during the course of the study, especially if such boundaries are less important than initially expected. Another important consideration is whether the ethnographer will be able to unobtrusively become a participating group member. For example, if all the volunteers are retired women and the researcher is a college-age male, the age and gender difference may hinder the researcher’s ability to participate as a natural member of the group and/or develop trust with other volunteers.

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