Survey Methods

Although definitions and colloquialisms vary, survey research generally refers to the systematic collection of self-report data from a sample of a larger population. When survey methodology is employed, a central goal is to obtain valid data that accurately represent a predetermined population. Tasks associated with survey research can include but are not limited to the following: chronicling demographics, assessing attitudes and beliefs, and documenting the frequencies of specific behaviors and intentions to engage in such behaviors. The main thing that inhibits this goal of obtaining valid data is error, which in this context refers to data that fail to capture the true physical or psychological characteristics of the population. Thus, one overarching goal of survey research is to reduce error so that the data collected are an accurate representation of the population.

There are myriad decisions at every step of the survey process that can either limit or amplify the amount of error and, therefore, the accuracy of the data collected. Furthermore, there is a constant need to consider the benefits of each approach in contrast to the costs. For example, a longer survey will provide more information but also leads to more participant fatigue—and potentially more error. Incentives can increase response rates but must be balanced with the reduction in sample size that will occur due to a restriction of resources.

Survey methodologists make decisions in regard to the people that will constitute the population of interest (e.g., teachers who have been teaching 10 or more years in urban schools) as well as the sampling approach to be employed (e.g., multistage cluster sampling). Researchers must make decisions regarding the sample size, the mode of the data collection, the research design, and the questions they will ask. Judgments are also needed in regard to the length of the survey, the appearance of the survey, and how missing data will be handled and the statistical assessments are to be used. Illustrative of the breadth of goals and challenges associated with survey research, entire encyclopedias have been dedicated to the topic of survey research. The current entry provides a snapshot of the complexities of the survey research process, with a focus on some of the errors that are most likely to occur at each stage.