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Constructed-Response Items

Constructed-response items refer to a wide range of test items that require examinees to produce answers in various formats; they are often contrasted or compared to multiple-choice (or selected-response) items in which examinees are required to select one or multiple appropriate options out of a given list. In practice, any items that do not take the selected response item format (e.g., multiple-choice or true/false items) can be referred to as constructed-response items. The term itself does not refer to a single format of items but implies flexibility in item formats. Because of this flexibility, “items” can be extended to “tasks” or “exercises” that are included not only in a written test but also in a performance test. The Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing defines constructed-response items, tasks, or exercises as follows:

Items, tasks, or exercises for which test takers must create their own responses or products rather than choose a response from a specified set. Short-answer items require a few words or a number as an answer; extended-response items require at least a few sentences and may include diagram, mathematical proofs, essay, or problem solutions such as network repairs or other work products. (pp. 217–218)

In large-scale assessments and formative assessments, the constructed-response item format is primarily used to measure a complex set of skills or composition of knowledge that cannot be easily summarized in a short list of response options. Due to the complexity in the skill sets to be measured, writing items as well as grading and analyzing item responses are inevitably accompanied by a certain level of complexity (e.g., nature of multidimensional latent traits or skills). This entry reviews various formats for constructed-response items within different contexts and addresses the issues in developing, grading, and analyzing constructed-response items for educational assessments.

Item Formats for Constructed-Responses

The constructed-response item format exhibits great diversity, reflecting distinct characteristics of the content domain (e.g., language arts, mathematics, science, social studies, or computer science) and cognitive demand (e.g., knowledge, skill, or ability) to be measured. The taxonomy of constructed-response item format has been developed with contributions made by many researchers. With some variabilities, all taxonomies include a common dichotomy: whether an item requires open-ended or closed-ended response. Here, the distinction between open-ended or closed-ended lies on the existence of a well-defined (or constrained) scope for the set of skills or ability to be measured. In the meantime, the taxonomy developed by Steven Osterlind and William Merz includes reasoning competency (predictive, analytical, and interpretive reasoning, and factual recall) and cognitive continuum (convergent vs. divergent thinking), while Thomas Haladyna’s taxonomy includes scoring (objective vs. subjective) and outcome dimensions (product vs. performance). Extant studies identified the following numerous constructed-response item formats: anecdotal, cloze (embedded answers), demonstration, discussion, essay, exhibition, experiment, fill in the blank, grid in response, interview, observation, oral report, performance, portfolio, project, research paper, review, self/peer test, short answer, writing sample, and video-based task.

While the constructed-response item can take various formats, the most commonly used item formats in large-scale assessments (e.g., National Assessment of Educational Progress or Programme for International Student Assessment) are arguably limited to cloze, fill in the blank, grid in response, and short answer for all content domains. In addition, essay writing and oral exams (e.g., the speaking section in the TOEFL, a test of English as a foreign language) are used to measure language competency. Finally, it should be noted that the item formats and taxonomy for constructed-response items need to be and will be even more varied and extended as modern technology (e.g., computers, tablets, or motion-detection devices) plays a more significant role in the educational learning and assessment environment.

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