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Data Collection
The term data often is misunderstood by quantitative researchers when engaging qualitative colleagues about their studies. To quantitatively oriented individuals, the term usually refers to numbers. They are numerical values used to apply statistics, showing significant differences between independent variables. Often quantitative researchers are surprised when listening to qualitative researchers describe their findings, based on “data,” given that frequently there are few numbers discussed in the study (“Where are the data?”).
For qualitative researchers, the term data most often is associated with words. Consequently, when qualitative researchers speak of “analyzing data,” they mean that participants’ words or other empirical evidence were assessed. As such, qualitative research is a means of empirical investigation—in the purest sense. Sometimes that phrase is used to indicate that a study was quantitative in design. Qualitative research examines evidence—sometimes visual and sometimes verbal—but the findings are not purely theoretical; they are grounded in empirical data. In short, it is the data collection process that separates qualitative research from speculative, philosophical, or archival research. There are many means that qualitative researchers use for collecting data. Four are highlighted in this entry.
What Are Data?
Interviews
Qualitative researchers typically ask questions of those participating in a study. While not denying the potential for subliminal or subconscious processes, qualitative researchers use directive means of finding what people are thinking, feeling, and doing. In other words, if researchers want to know what is occurring with people, they ask them.
Words are of utmost importance to qualitative researchers. Not only are the general ideas salient, but also the richness in word choices, metaphors, and even slang is salient. Consequently, simply taking notes most often does not suffice for rigorous qualitative data collection. Rather, researchers audiorecord (or videorecord) their participants. Following this practice has multiple benefits.
First, researchers are free to think creatively while the interviews are taking place. Taking copious notes while participants are speaking makes it difficult to steer concentration and give appropriate focus to the intent behind what the speakers are communicating. In addition, tape-recording the interviews allows researchers to conduct later in-depth analysis of participants’ statements—comparing them with previous or future statements as well as with the interviews given by others. Third, recording participants’ words ensures integrity of the data. Social psychologists indicate that they tend to fill in gaps when information is missing. By audiorecording participants’ interviews, researchers are more assured that they are capturing the true essence of interviewees’ intents.
Fieldnotes and Memos
During the data collection phase in qualitative research, apt researchers are aware of the surroundings where information exists. Depending on the nature of the study, such data may include smells, sounds, graffiti, garb, tastes, and the like. For example, if a qualitative researcher is studying crack cocaine addicts, he or she may spend a period of time living in a “crack house” or hotel. Ethnographically, this would enable the researcher to better understand the milieu of the research participants as they experience their own worlds. The researcher, for example, potentially would become aware of mold smells, dripping faucets, crying, broken appliances, and unrepaired damage in the crack house. Each of these components would be “data” for later consideration by the researcher.
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