Mode 1 and Mode 2 Knowledge Production

Mode 1

Mode 1 research is characterized by the explanatory knowledge that is generated in a disciplinary context. It is research that arises from the academic agenda, and that agenda usually takes place within a singular discipline and is accountable to that discipline. In many respects, Mode 1 captures the normal meaning of the term science. By this is meant that the aim of the research is to produce universal knowledge and to build and test theory within a disciplinary field. The type of knowledge acquired is universal covering law. The data is context-free and validated by logic, measurement and consistency of prediction and control. The role of the researcher is that of an observer, and relationship to the setting is detached and neutral.

Mode 2

In contrast to Mode 1, Mode 2 research has the following characteristics:

• It is produced in the context of a particular application. This means that it has a practical focus, perhaps a problem-solving one. It is relevant and useful to practitioners.
• It is characterized by trans-disciplinarity, in that it integrates different skills, multi- or interdisciplinary depending on the application.
• It is characterized by heterogeneity and organizational diversity, in that multidisciplinary teams may be temporary and that members come and go as the situation unfolds and as different skills are required at different stages of the project.
• It is characterized by social accountability and reflexivity where there is accountability to outcomes and to the participants. This involves reflexivity and a sensitivity to the process of the research itself and to, for example, the dynamics of trans-disciplinarity.
• It is characterized by a diverse range of quality controls, in that unlike Mode 1 where the question of knowledge production is judged from the stance of the discipline, Mode 2 draws on a broader range of interests, such as its application, and from the perspective of different stakeholders.

In short, Mode 2 is a completely different approach to research from Mode 1 (see Table 1).

Mode 2 challenges the established model of doctoral studies programmes in social science where typically isolated individuals engage in research within their field of expertise. In contrast, Mode 2 research is a network activity, and if applied to doctoral programmes, it would involve teams of researchers working together with some form of collective assessment and examination possible.

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