Ethics and Moral Decision-Making

Ethics is a practical science focused on how we put values into action. It is the study of ethical relationships we have with human beings, sentient creatures and the physical world in which we live. It is the study of what we value in these relationships and the decisions we make based on those values. As a study, ethics develops both conceptual and empirical frameworks to articulate meaning and practice.

Ethical systems are intended to clarify and advance our understanding of moral relationships and the value-based decisions we make. Ethical systems give us basic tools for practical reasoning and define fundamental terms used in moral discourse so that in our relationships with others we may avoid misleading ambiguities. As models for moral action, these systems help us critique our actions and the actions of others. Ethics may also refer to a specific set of values that define a group or a pattern of decision-making. Codes of ethics define and set the standards for many professions, corporations and organizations.

This entry provides a brief description of three major ethical systems as developed by Aristotle (384–322 BC), Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) and John Stuart Mill (1806–73). The intent is to illustrate how these systems function as models for ethical decision-making and describe how these models may inform the work of action researchers in community and organizational settings.

Two general observations about these ethical systems: First, since the very earliest writers and continuing actively today, philosophers have developed numerous ethical systems. None of these systems were developed in a vacuum. Many authors preceded these three theory builders, and their work continues to generate new revisions and extensions as well as new theoretic models. They were selected based on the stature these systems hold among the philosophical community of scholars and because they identify important conceptions of ethics commonly in use and practice throughout society today.

Second, none of these accounts has proven to be without its merits or its faults. Critics find the systems powerful enough to warrant exploring ways to improve them, and followers find ample opportunities for building upon the positive qualities as they take into consideration an increasingly complex and changing ethical landscape.

Most important of all, each of these systems illustrates a significantly different approach to ethical decision-making. Although philosophical theorists focus on detailed nuances in each system, the intent here is to identify the practical lessons we can acquire from these models, ones that will assist us in moral decision-making and in understanding values in action.