Activity Theory

Activity theory was initiated by a group of Russian psychologists in the 1920s and 1930s, and the theory is specifically credited to Lev Vygotsky, Alexy Leont'ev and Alexander Luria. The underpinning philosophy of this theory aimed to explain human consciousness and behaviour.

Activity theory is the study of what humans ‘do’ and their belief that what they do (an individual's activity) defines their consciousness, which in turn mediates the way they approach other, unrelated activity.

For example, Bonnie Nardi noted that if a person spends his days digging ditches, his consciousness will be thusly shaped. If that person finds himself writing computer programmes as his life's work, that is quite another consciousness.

Human activity is categorized as external—what an individual does in the world—and internal–what is stored in the mind and generated by the individual. The process of internalization involves individuals learning from their experience and being trained by others. The internalization allows humans to envisage possible future actions and their outcomes.

While activity theory and action research have different origins, a special issue in Mind, Culture, and Activity in 2011 explored the relationship between Cultural-Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) and action research. It was pointed out in this issue that both CHAT and action research consider that practice or praxis is important in the creation of knowledge, both believe that research in social science should result in societal practice and both are sociocritical approaches. The issue also points out that both Vygotsky, who is considered one of the prominent scholars in CHAT, and Kurt Lewin, who is considered the father of action research, were in close contact with each other when action research came into being.

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Subject, Object and Activity

A ‘subject’ is an individual or group of individuals involved in a common activity which is the focus of observation by the analyst. The subject undertakes some activity to achieve an ‘object’ (see Figure 1). The arrow in Figure 1 represents the activity—in other words, the element symbolizing work. The activity is the point of interest as it is the ‘black box’ detailing how work is done.

Figure 1 Subject, Object and Activity

In activity theory, reference to the object alludes to the desire (theoretical result) that the subject is trying to fulfil, or the underlying motive for the activity. The object is what drives an activity (motivation).

The unit of analysis for the investigation of an activity was initially viewed from an individual perspective. A contemporary model of activity theory offered by Yrjo Engeström considered the analysis of an activity from the view of a collective group level (see Figure 3).

The object is dynamic and can change or develop over the lifetime of an activity. It is possible that the object and motive may change or evolve during the process of an activity. Therefore, in undertaking the activity, the anticipated object and the actual outcome may differ. An example used by Victor Kaptelinin and Nardi describes how a house (object) being built by a family (subject) may change over time and, when complete, may be substantially different from that initially envisaged.

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