Scientific Method

Conceptual Overview and Discussion

Knowledge acquisition implies the generation, development, and testing of theory. Generation and development of theory may occur without data. In particular, intuitive or theoretical syntheses without the consideration of data may generate and develop constructs, models, and testable propositions. Theory-testing, however, requires data in order to confirm or disconfirm testable propositions.

Knowledge, on the other hand, has various degrees of depth and breadth. Knowledge depth increases with identification, description, explanation, prediction, and control. Such sequential degrees of knowledge depth are implicit, respectively, in “what,” “how,” “why,” “when,” and “how much” questions. Knowledge depth refers to content and process, whereas knowledge breadth concerns context, which is implicit in “who” and “where” questions. The corollary of such a view of knowledge depth and breadth is that qualitative identification necessarily precedes quantitative control.

Such considerations are closely related to the scientific method because the latter constitutes a metalogic for bridging theory and data. In other words, the scientific method is a set of assumptions and procedures for knowledge acquisition consistent with scientific norms. Such a definition emphasizes the three elements of the scientific method listed at the beginning of this entry, that is, (1) assumptions, (2) procedures, and (3) consistency.

Consistency concerns the alignment of assumptions and procedures in light of scientific norms. The latter, however, are not necessarily universal, because of logical and sociological heterogeneity. Philosophy of science, for instance, questions the compatibility between different types of logic (e.g., deduction, induction, abduction, and retroduction), especially in terms of causality as necessarily observable, regular, and predictable. Sociology of science, on the other hand, questions the homogeneity of scientific norms across disciplinary and intradisciplinary research communities.

The definition of scientific method can thus be specified as a set of assumptions and procedures for knowledge acquisition that are consistent with (logically and sociologically situated) scientific norms. In addition to such logical and sociological awareness, research in general, and case study research in particular, requires awareness of scientific method assumptions and procedures. Assumptions concern the nature of reality (ontology), knowledge (epistemology), and research [Page 841](methodology). Procedures, on the other hand, concern data collection and analysis as well as quality criteria.

Ontological assumptions concern the nature of reality. At one extreme, phenomena are regarded as objective in isolation and in relation to each other; at the other extreme, phenomena are considered subjective in isolation and in relation to each other. The former view assumes a single apprehensible reality, whereas the latter view assumes the coexistence of multiple nonapprehensible realities. This may be called the ontological divide of scientific norms.

Epistemological assumptions, on the other hand, concern the nature of knowledge. At one extreme, knowledge is assumed to be value free and thus independent of the researcher; at the other extreme, knowledge is assumed to the value laden and thus dependent on the researcher. This may be called the epistemological divide of scientific norms.

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