Direct Observation as Evidence

Conceptual Overview and Discussion

Direct observation may be referred to by other terms, including participant observation, site visits, or field work. Use of the term participant observation is closely linked to ethnographic research. Michael Patton, who has written extensively on qualitative research, indicated that direct observation provides insight into the taken-for-granted aspects of everyday activities that may go unreported by participants, gives the researcher direct experience of the phenomena being studied, and creates an opportunity to see and hear what is happening in a social setting rather than focusing solely on narrative descriptions of participants.

The nature of direct observation as a method of data collection will be shaped by the particular epistemological research tradition that is guiding the overall research project. Egon Guba and [Page 302]Yvonne Lincoln proposed five paradigmatic perspectives that describe contrasting epistemological views. These epistemological perspectives include positivism, postpositivism, critical theory, constructivism, and participatory paradigms. The particular epistemological view taken in the research has methodological implications for decisions about the role of the researcher and the nature and focus of the observations.

Positivistic and postpositivistic paradigmatic views would suggest that the researcher takes the role of a detached observer, whereas other views would suggest there is engagement of the researcher as a participant, critic, or collaborator in the research. The researcher may just “hang out” or participate to varying degrees in the activities or roles within the setting being studied. As Michael Angrosino and Kimberly Mays de Perez observed, ethnicity, gender, and class, as well as social and cultural norms, will shape the researcher's role in the social setting, influence the nature of observations and interactions, and generate different conclusions.

Observations may be structured or unstructured depending on the epistemological underpinnings of the research. In some types of case study research direct observation will be guided by specific checklists as a means of focusing on selected behaviors or activities that are the focus of the research. In other types of research observations may be completely unstructured at the beginning and become more selective over time. The research purpose and questions identified for the project should provide direction as to the focus and duration of observations. Periods of significant immersion are generally required for the researcher to integrate him- or herself into the setting and gain sufficient insight and experience for analysis.

Observation requires the development of skills in paying attention, locating oneself as an observer, and disciplined practice in writing field notes. Reliable and accurate observation means that researchers must be present in the moment in order to engage in, as Michael Patton described, “systematic seeing.” Systematic seeing is a disciplined approach to making observations that are accurate, reliable, and relevant to the focus of the research. A systematic approach to observation means that one is constantly aware of and attentive to what is going on in the setting at multiple levels. What is the nature of the setting? What are people saying? What are people doing? What interactions are taking place? What else is going on? Which of these observations are relevant to the focus of the research? Disciplined observation requires immersion in the setting and constant questioning as to the meaning of observations. In order to generate insights from observations, researchers must be equally disciplined in acknowledging their own perspectives and positioning as a researcher and in the writing of field notes that capture valuable observations and clues as to the meaning of observations.

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